By HRH Princess Eugene Majuru, Princess of Harare
1. Introduction: The Contested Throne and the Call for Equality
Chieftainship succession in Zimbabwe is frequently fraught with controversy, often marked by the systemic exclusion of women. A pervasive sentiment, “hatitongwe nevakadzi” (we cannot be led by women), underscores a deep-seated resistance to female leadership. This resistance manifests in various forms, including abusive tactics and name-calling, aimed at undermining strong-willed and powerful women. Such cases have been widely reported across Zimbabwe.
The recent appointment of Ms. Silibaziso Mlotshwa as substantive Chief Mvuthu in Hwange District serves as a poignant contemporary example of this struggle. Her historic appointment by President Mnangagwa, effective May 16, 2025, brings a measure of closure to a protracted dispute over traditional leadership, as detailed in recent reports. This case is particularly significant because it culminated from a legal battle at the High Court in 2020, which nullified a male relative’s nomination and ruled against gender discrimination in her succession. The Mvuthu case offers a compelling illustration of the ongoing tension between traditional succession practices and modern constitutional principles. The High Court’s ruling against gender discrimination in this instance highlights a significant dynamic: while traditional patriarchal norms remain formidable, the modern legal framework, particularly through judicial intervention, can act as a counter-force. This suggests a gradual but important shift where constitutional rights are beginning to exert influence over discriminatory customary practices, even if social acceptance lags behind legal recognition. This creates a complex interplay between legal equality and the lived reality of discrimination.
A striking historical paradox further complicates this narrative. During the First and Second Chimurenga wars, women, such as the revered Mbuya Nehanda, played pivotal leadership roles, guiding men in the struggle for independence. Yet, in post-independence Zimbabwe, there is a prevailing perception among some men that women are “useless” in leadership, reinforcing the “hatitongwe nevakadzi” narrative. This stark contrast between historical influence and contemporary marginalization forms a central theme of this report, inviting a deeper examination of the forces at play. The sentiment “hatitongwe nevakadzi” is not merely a statement of preference but appears to be a defensive reaction rooted in concerns over established power, status, and economic control. Reports indicate that traditional gender roles, social norms, and cultural barriers reinforce what can be termed “hegemonic masculinities,” and any change in women’s status is strongly contested because it directly affects the distribution of political and economic power within communities. Consequently, the reported abuse and name-calling are not just personal attacks but tactics employed to maintain a patriarchal order by discrediting and disempowering women who challenge it.
2. Traditional Authority Meets Modern Law: Navigating Succession in Zimbabwe
The selection of a chief in Zimbabwe is a multifaceted process, varying significantly across clans. Some traditions emphasse spiritual selection, where the chief is chosen through divine guidance. In other clans, succession follows a strict lineage system, typically based on the eldest family within a rotational framework. However, it is also observed that clan members sometimes vote for their preferred candidate, indicating a blend of ancient customs and more democratic, albeit informal, processes.
Zimbabwe’s Constitution, specifically Section 283, plays a crucial role in regulating traditional leadership. It mandates an Act of Parliament to govern the appointment, suspension, succession, and removal of traditional leaders, explicitly stating that this must be done “in accordance with the prevailing culture, customs, traditions and practices of the communities concerned”. The current legislative instrument providing for these matters is the Traditional Leaders Act [Chapter 29:17]. This Act integrates traditional leadership structures within the framework of local governance, outlining the appointment, duties, and disciplinary procedures for chiefs, headmen, and village heads. It also establishes various assemblies, including the Council of Chiefs and provincial assemblies, and grants traditional leaders extensive powers over communal land, water management, and resource allocation.
The appointment process itself involves the President making the final appointment based on recommendations from the Provincial Assembly of Chiefs, through the National Council of Chiefs and the Minister responsible for traditional leaders, all in accordance with traditional practices. This legal integration of customary law, while seemingly respectful of tradition, can inadvertently entrench patriarchal customary practices if “traditional practices” are interpreted to exclude women. The explicit inclusion of “traditional practices” in the constitutional and statutory framework provides a legal basis for resistance to female chiefs, even as other parts of the Constitution uphold gender equality. This creates a legal ambiguity that often requires judicial intervention, as seen in the Mvuthu case, to clarify and enforce non-discrimination. The significant power over land and resources inherent in these positions further intensifies succession disputes and the motivation to exclude women.
Disputes concerning traditional leadership appointments are primarily resolved by the President on the recommendation of the Provincial Assembly of Chiefs through the Minister. However, the High Court can intervene, especially when constitutional rights are at stake. The landmark High Court ruling in July 2020 concerning the Mvuthu chieftaincy exemplifies this judicial role. The court nullified the nomination of Silibaziso Mlotshwa’s uncle, Saunders Mlotshwa, stating it was “unlawful, null and void.” Crucially, the judge ruled that it was unconstitutional to discriminate against Silibaziso based on her gender, and that the administrator was guilty of dereliction of duty by failing to uphold the Bill of Rights. This ruling echoes earlier challenges faced by female chiefs like Sinqobile Mabhena of Umzingwane, who, despite being chosen by her father, faced family opposition. Her installation ceremony in 1996 saw the then Local Government Minister emphasize that her gender was “irrelevant” because the community had chosen her. The High Court’s direct intervention in the Mvuthu case, explicitly citing unconstitutionality, demonstrates the judiciary’s capacity to act as a critical arbiter and a potential champion for women’s rights within traditional leadership structures. This indicates that despite the constitutional deference to customary law, there is a growing recognition that customary law cannot override fundamental human rights enshrined in the Constitution. This judicial activism represents a powerful force for change, compelling a reinterpretation or adaptation of traditional practices to align with modern constitutional principles.
Table 1: Notable Female Chiefs in Zimbabwe and Their Succession Journeys
Chief’s Name Chieftaincy/District Year of Installation Key Challenges/Legal Battles Outcome/Significance
Silibaziso Mlotshwa Mvuthu/Hwange May 2025 (effective) Protracted decade-long dispute; High Court ruled against gender discrimination (2020) Historic appointment by President Mnangagwa, landmark ruling for gender equality
Sinqobile Mabhena Mabhena/Umzingwane 1996 Family opposition despite father’s choice; Minister affirmed community choice First Indunakazi (female chief) among Nguni people
Nonhlanhla Sibanda Ndube/Insiza Pre-2007 – Listed as one of the earlier female chiefs in Matabeleland
Ketso Mathe Gwanda Pre-2007 – Listed as one of the earlier female chiefs in Matabeleland
Hikwa Bulilima Pre-2021 – Listed among female chiefs in Matabeleland
Zanele Khumalo Mabhikwa/Lupane March 2025 (Regent) – Regent Chief, joining other female chiefs
3. “Hatitongwe Nevakadzi”: Unpacking the Resistance to Female Leadership
Zimbabwe is largely a patriarchal society where traditional leadership roles have historically been reserved for men, making power-sharing between genders highly controversial. This patriarchal system has subjected women to marginalization, depriving them of rights in leadership, land ownership, and decision-making. Patriarchy is deeply entrenched through cultural norms and traditions, often portraying certain practices as unquestionable simply because they are “culture”.
The sentiment “hatitongwe nevakadzi” (we cannot be led by women) is a direct expression of this resistance. Men who cannot accept female leadership often resort to abusive behavior and name-calling as a means to “bring women down.” Women who occupy male-reserved positions or challenge these “hegemonic masculinities” are likely to face significant opposition not only from the community but also from their own families and other chiefs. This resistance is not solely about adherence to tradition but is profoundly linked to the distribution of political and economic power within a community and the wider society. Traditional leaders hold extensive powers in local administration, including the allocation of communal land, management of grazing, irrigation, and the utilization of natural resources. Therefore, strong-willed, powerful women are perceived as a threat because their leadership challenges the established order and the associated control over these vital resources and status. The exclusion of women from chieftainship thus functions as a mechanism to maintain male dominance over communal land and economic opportunities, making the resistance a material, rather than just ideological, struggle.
The challenges faced by women traditional leaders are further compounded by intersecting factors beyond just gender. They may be marginalised and undermined based on their age (if perceived as too young or too old), marital status (unmarried women may be disrespected), education level (less educated women ignored), or even their appearance if it challenges traditional norms. These factors are often not issues for male leaders, highlighting a double standard in assessing leadership capability and revealing additional layers of justification for exclusion.
A critical historical observation is that while women played roles as significant as men during the liberation struggle, post-colonial Zimbabwe appears to have “re-invented and adopted a colonial legacy that marginalised women, despite the enactment of laws to uphold women’s equality”. This suggests that the current patriarchal resistance is not purely an inherent “traditional” phenomenon but is a complex interplay of pre-colonial customs, colonial impositions (which often favored male leadership), and post-independence policy failures. This dynamic reinforced “hegemonic masculinities” in rural areas, making it difficult for women to break the glass ceiling in traditional leadership.
4. Echoes of the Past: Women’s Enduring Leadership in Zimbabwean History
A striking historical fact, explicitly mentioned in the user query, is that during the First and Second Chimurenga wars, “it is women who led the men in the war.” This historical reality stands in stark contrast to the contemporary marginalization of women in leadership, highlighting that the liberation struggle saw women playing roles as significant as men.
Mbuya Nehanda (c. 1840–1898), also known as Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana, epitomises this historical female leadership. She was a revered svikiro (spirit medium) of the Zezuru Shona people, a medium of Nehanda, a powerful ancestral spirit (mhondoro) that traditionally uses women as its mediums. As one of the spiritual leaders, she played a pivotal role in organizing nationwide participation in the First Chimurenga (1896-97) against British South Africa Company’s colonization. She held great authority, made oracular pronouncements, and performed ceremonies believed to ensure good crops and rain. Her influence was immense; she united local ethnic groups and inspired resistance, with even King Lobengula recognizing her as a powerful spiritual medium.
Before her execution by the British in 1898, she famously declared, “My bones shall rise again,” a prophecy believed to have inspired the Second Chimurenga (1964-79) which ultimately led to Zimbabwe’s independence. Her heroism became a significant source of inspiration for nationalist movements in the 1960s and 70s. The profound reverence for Mbuya Nehanda, a figure central to Zimbabwe’s foundational narrative of independence, stands in stark contrast to the contemporary sentiment of “hatitongwe nevakadzi” and the perception that “men appear to think women are useless.” This suggests a societal phenomenon where historical female leadership, particularly in times of national crisis, is revered and mythologized, but contemporary female leadership, especially in traditional governance, is actively resisted. This indicates that the resistance is not fundamentally about women’s capacity to lead, but about their right to lead in specific, power-laden contexts, particularly when it challenges established male hierarchies in peacetime.
Furthermore, Mbuya Nehanda’s power stemmed from her role as a svikiro, a spiritual authority deeply respected in Shona culture. While the user query notes that chiefs are sometimes chosen “spiritually,” the current struggle for female chiefs often involves legal battles and resistance based on secular power dynamics. This highlights a potential disconnect or shift in how different forms of authority (spiritual versus secular/administrative) are perceived and contested. While spiritual authority historically granted women immense power, modern chieftainship, formalized by acts like the Traditional Leaders Act, has become more intertwined with state administration and control over tangible resources. This shift may have inadvertently diminished the traditional avenues for female spiritual authority to translate into formal, secular leadership, making the path to chieftainship more reliant on legal and political battles than spiritual endorsement.
5. Beyond Traditional Leadership: The Broader Landscape of Women in Zimbabwean Governance
Despite constitutional provisions aimed at promoting gender equality, women remain significantly underrepresented across various leadership positions in Zimbabwe.
In traditional leadership roles, the disparity is particularly stark. In 2021, there were only 6 female chiefs out of 272 (2.2%) and 15 female headmen out of 452 (3.3%). Another source, potentially older, cites an even lower figure of 0.36% female chiefs. Both figures starkly illustrate the extreme gender gap in traditional governance. The discrepancy between the progress in formal political structures and the stagnation in traditional governance is notable. While women held 28.1% of seats in the national parliament in 2024 , indicating some advancement in formal political spheres, the percentages for female chiefs remain extremely low. This suggests that traditional governance systems are significantly more resistant to gender parity than formal political structures, likely due to the deeply embedded nature of customary laws and social norms, which are harder to shift through legislative means alone.
Beyond traditional leadership, similar disparities persist. Women hold only 31% of senior and middle management positions , reflecting comparable challenges in the corporate sector. Furthermore, the female labor force participation rate stands at just over 50%, significantly lower than 80% for men globally. This indicates a broader economic disempowerment that can impact leadership aspirations. This pattern suggests a reinforcing cycle where economic disempowerment, characterized by lower labor force participation and fewer management roles, limits women’s access to resources, networks, and influence. This, in turn, hinders their ability to ascend to leadership positions, including chieftainship. Conversely, exclusion from leadership roles, especially those that control land and resources like chieftainship, perpetuates economic marginalization. This highlights that addressing gender inequality in leadership requires a holistic approach that includes economic empowerment and property rights, not just political or traditional reforms.
Table 2: Women’s Representation in Zimbabwean Leadership (Selected Sectors)
Leadership Sector Percentage of Women Total Number (if applicable) Year of Data Source
Traditional Chiefs 2.2% 6 out of 272 2021 SADC Gender Protocol Barometer
Traditional Chiefs 0.36% – –
Traditional Headmen 3.3% 15 out of 452 2021 SADC Gender Protocol Barometer
National Parliament 28.1% – 2024 World Bank Gender Data Portal
Senior/Middle Management 31% – – World Bank
Female Labor Force Participation ~50% – – World Bank Gender Data Portal
Zimbabwe has enacted various laws and policies to curb gender-based discrimination and uphold women’s equal rights since independence in 1980. These include the Legal Age Majority Act of 1982 (LAMA), the Sex Disqualification Act, and the Equal Pay Act. The 2013 Constitution also increased reserved seats for women in Parliament. However, the implementation of these progressive laws, particularly in rural areas and within traditional governance structures, has been challenging. The “reinvention” of a colonial legacy that marginalized women post-independence, despite these laws, has reinforced “hegemonic masculinities” in rural areas, making it difficult for women to break the glass ceiling in traditional leadership. The continued low representation, despite legal frameworks, highlights that legal provisions alone are insufficient without concerted efforts to address deeply ingrained socio-cultural barriers and patriarchal ideologies.
6. Pathways to Progress: Reimagining Leadership and Legitimacy
While legal victories, such as the High Court ruling in the Mvuthu case , are crucial for establishing women’s right to succeed, the long-term legitimacy and effectiveness of female traditional leaders often depend on community acceptance. A key finding in the study of Chief Mabhena highlighted that the legitimacy of traditional leaders primarily lies with the community accepting the rulership through celebrations, ceremonies, and commitment to the well-being of the people. This suggests that legal appointments, while foundational, must be followed by concerted efforts to secure social buy-in and respect. This indicates that legal rulings, while essential, are not sufficient on their own to ensure the full legitimacy and effective functioning of female chiefs. A successful pathway to progress requires a dual strategy: strong legal enforcement to establish the right to lead, coupled with sustained efforts to cultivate social acceptance and legitimacy within the community. This means policy interventions must extend beyond legal frameworks to include cultural sensitivity, community engagement, and potentially, re-education on evolving customary practices.
Strengthening legal enforcement and constitutional supremacy is paramount. The Mvuthu ruling demonstrated the judiciary’s capacity to uphold constitutional principles of non-discrimination over discriminatory customary practices. Continued judicial vigilance and intervention are necessary to ensure that Section 283 of the Constitution and the Traditional Leaders Act are interpreted and applied in a manner consistent with gender equality. There is also a need to ensure that the “domestic remedies” for dispute resolution (involving the President, Provincial Assembly, and Minister) effectively address gender discrimination, rather than inadvertently perpetuating it.
Fostering cultural shifts and challenging hegemonic masculinities is equally vital. Addressing the “hatitongwe nevakadzi” sentiment requires a concerted effort to challenge deeply ingrained traditional gender roles, social norms, and cultural barriers that reinforce male dominance. This involves public education, community dialogues, and engaging male traditional leaders as allies in promoting gender equality. Recognizing and celebrating historical female leaders like Mbuya Nehanda can serve as a powerful tool to counter contemporary narratives that deem women “useless” in leadership, reminding society of women’s historical capacity and influence. Her revered historical figure can be strategically leveraged as a powerful symbol in contemporary advocacy for female leadership, directly refuting the notion that women are incapable or traditionally excluded from leading men. This suggests that public education campaigns and cultural initiatives could draw on such historical precedents to challenge modern patriarchal interpretations of tradition, framing female leadership not as a foreign imposition but as a re-assertion of an indigenous, albeit sometimes forgotten, aspect of Zimbabwean heritage. Efforts must also address the intersectional discrimination faced by women chiefs based on age, marital status, education, and appearance.
Supporting women’s advocacy and capacity building is another crucial pathway. Empowering women aspiring to or already in traditional leadership roles through mentorship, training, and networking opportunities can enable them to navigate the complex socio-legal landscape. Advocacy groups and civil society organizations play a vital role in raising awareness, challenging discriminatory practices, and pushing for policy reforms that genuinely promote gender equity in traditional governance.
7. Conclusion: The Unfinished Journey Towards Gender Parity in Zimbabwean Leadership
The journey towards gender parity in Zimbabwean chieftainship is a complex and ongoing struggle, marked by a profound tension between evolving constitutional principles, deeply ingrained patriarchal customary laws, and the enduring resistance encapsulated by “hatitongwe nevakadzi.” While landmark legal victories, such as the Mvuthu chieftaincy case, demonstrate the judiciary’s commitment to non-discrimination, the pervasive socio-cultural barriers and the disproportionately low representation of women across all leadership spheres highlight the scale of the challenge.
The paradox of women’s celebrated historical leadership during the liberation struggles, contrasted with their current marginalization, underscores the need for a critical re-evaluation of post-colonial gender dynamics and the selective interpretation of tradition. The resistance is not merely cultural but is deeply intertwined with the distribution of political and economic power, particularly control over communal resources.
Achieving true gender equality in Zimbabwean leadership requires a multi-faceted approach. This includes consistent legal enforcement, judicial activism, and the strategic leveraging of powerful historical narratives. Crucially, it also necessitates a profound cultural shift that challenges hegemonic masculinities and fosters genuine community acceptance for female leaders. Empowering women in traditional governance is not just a matter of rights; it is essential for inclusive development, equitable resource management, and a truly representative national identity that honors its past and embraces its future. The unfinished journey demands sustained effort and a collective commitment to breaking down the remaining barriers.
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